Informational Encyclopedia

The basic formula for channel capacity is

Q = A x V

Manning's formula for velocity is   

Trapezoidal Watercourse/canal or Channel

Flow measurement or hydraulic formulas are used to measure the discharge/volume of water through canals,irrigation channels,watercourses,drain lines etc. Following is the brief descripion used to calculate the flow measurement or discharge of the trapezoidal sectioned channel.

b = bottom width                                                                              d = flow depth              

B = width at water surface = b + ( 2 x z x d )                                  FB = Free board

D = Total depth of channel = d + FB                                               BW = Bank width

Z = Side slope, ( Such as 1: 1 - 1.5 : 1  & 2 : 1)                              FSL = Full supply level

TW = total width of the ditch = b + ( 2 x Z x D)

So formula for trapezoidal channel flow quantity is

 A = b x d + Z x d²

Rectangular Watercourse/canal or channel

A = b x d

where b is the width of the channel and d is the depth of the channels.

          

Building stone is gotten by taking rock from the earth and decreasing it to the required shapes and sizes for development. It is a characteristic, lavishly various material that can shift incredibly in its science, structure, physical properties, and appearance. Geographically, stone can be classified into three sorts as indicated by how it was formed.

Granite Group: 

The vitality from the sun reaching on  the earth every day ranges from around 600 Btu (British Thermal Unit)/square feet for Northern Europe to around 2000 Btu/square feet for parched locales close to the equator. More vitality from sun strikes the earth in one hour than all vitality expended on the planet in a year! A summer day's sun with full swing provides a  square, meter of area with a power include very nearly a kilowatt. One may ask why sun oriented vitality has not supplanted the customary vitality sources, not even a huge division. So there are unquestionably  more advantages and a few disadvantages of solar power system.

Advantages of Solar Power.

No Pollution and Global warming friendly.

Solar Panels does not create any pollution while producing electricity. Global warming  threatens  the survival of human culture, and in addition the survival of incalculable species. Fortunately, decades (or even hundreds of years) of exploration have prompted effective sun powered board frameworks that make power without creating a worldwide temperature alteration contamination. Sunlight based Solar power is presently plainly a standout among the most critical answer for the global warming.

Cost Comparison

Availability and Reliability 

Most countries of the world have the sun rays and availability of the solar power generation is very easy. All across the world, we know precisely when sun will rise and set each day of the year. While mists might be somewhat less unsurprising, we do likewise have genuinely great regular and day by day projections for the measure of daylight that will be gotten in various areas. All things considered, this makes solar power to a great reliable source of energy.

Energy independence and zero dependence of fuels.

Solar power provides easy energy independence to every one. One time installation and you are free and zero dependent of other sources of energies. The reliance on the fossil energizes can be lessened an awesome arrangement. In one day the sun based vitality falling on India alone is more prominent than the vitality in their present yearly coal utilization.

Creating of new Jobs

Due to new innovation, Solar Power system creates new job opportunities for unemployed skilled workers.In Pakistan there are many several solar power projects creates a lots of jobs. Solar power panel plates companies and other renewable energy firms hires and facilitates the skilled persons.  

No Transportation Charges.

As We said that it has only once time installation charges. When you compare other energy resources it has no transportation charges.

Disadvantages of Solar Power system

Solar power system has very rare disadvantages like covering a lots of space (For large energy production), energy storage is also a disadvantage.

This deformity as a rule appears as round openings like swiss cheese, simply under the adapt surface of the throwing and becomes exposed when light machining. The cause is a wet ladle, where the ladle covering was not appropriately and altogether dried. In compelling cases the metal will kick and bubble in the ladle. The act of pigging the metal in a wet ladle and refilling it with the trusts that the pigged metal wrapped up the ladle is sheer fully.

These happens when the mold pit is not totally filled by the liquid and inadequate material or metal.

It is an extension of the mold depression by liquid metal weight bringing about restricted or general augmentation of the casting.

These are meager projections of the metal not proposed as a piece of casting. These more often than not happens at the separating line of the mold.

It occurs near the gates as a rough spots or lumps on the casting work piece.

It is an inward or outside worn out spasmodically in the metal casting  coming about soon after the metal has cemented.

This defect is also known as honeycombing. These are smooth depression  on the outer surface of the casting.It occurs near the ingrates.

These are patches of sand on the outer surface of the casting work piece.

These grant seepage of the metal from the hole and result in inadequate casting.

This fault is brought about by shaking the casting out too early when a part of it is still fluid. The area runs out leaving an imperfection. In great cases the whole focus segment will run out on the shake out man's feet.

In Autocad 2007 version, exists with the name of Modeling tool bar and In Autocad 2004 version, it exists with the name of Solids. This tool bar has extra features to draw solid geometrical shapes in isometric or 3d. Follow the instructions and step by step procedure are as follows.

1:Click on the box icon from the modeling tool bar.

2: Click first point (starting point) or enter c (for starting your shape from center).

3: Enter your desired rectangular dimension of length and width. You can enter your length and width amount by entering @ 100 , 50 where 100 will be your desired length and 50 will be width. If you enter one dimension it will create square.

4:  Now enter your desired height.

For Wedge draw as same as above mentioned. But you can change your height direction by the help of your mouse.

How to draw  Cone and Cylinder

1: Click any point on the drawing area for center point.

2: Provide Radius of the base circle and provide your desired height.

3: For 3P and 2P options follow the diagram,

4: If you want to draw an elliptical Cylinder or elliptical cone, after click the your desired icon enter e for base ellipse. Provide first axis and second axis dimensions and then enter your third elliptical dimension. After making your base ellipse provide your desired height.

How to Draw Sphere.

1: Click any point for center point of the sphere.

2: Enter your radius or enter d for diameter and twice your dimension.

How to draw Torus.

1: Click the center point to start your torus

2: Enter your desired dimension of radius (Radius of Torus)

3: Then enter your Torus tube's radius dimension.

How to draw Pyramid

1: Click any point to start your pyramid.

2: Enter your desired height of the pyramid.

If you enter e for edge at the start it will create your base from its edges. and if you enter s it asks how many sides are required.

Commonly, the jigs and fixtures devices found in a machine or workshop are for machining operations. Different operations, be that as it may, for example, assembley, layout, testing, and design, are additionally ranges where work holding devices are appropriate. There are numerous  varieties inside every broad arrangement, and numerous work holders are really combination of two or a greater amount of the orders.

Common Applications of Jigs and fixtures are as follows.

1: External Surface Machine Applications

Flat-Surface Machining

   • Milling fixtures

   • Surface-grinding fixtures

   • Planing fixtures

   • Shaping fixtures

Cylindrical-Surface Machining

   • Lathe fixtures

   • Cylindrical-grinding fixtures

Irregular-Surface Machining

   • Band-sawing fixtures

   • External-broaching fixtures

2: Internal Surface Machine Applications

3: Non Machining Application Assembley

   • Welding fixtures

   • Mechanical-assembly fixtures

     (Riveting, stapling, stitching, pinning, etc.)

   • Soldering fixtures

4: Inspection

   • Mechanical-inspection fixtures

   • Optical-inspection fixtures

   • Electronic-inspection fixtures

5: Finishing

   • Painting fixtures

   • Plating fixtures

   • Polishing fixtures

   • Lapping fixtures

   • Honing fixtures

6: Miscellaneous

   • Layout templates

   • Testing fixtures

   • Heat-treating fixtures

7: Modular Fixtures

Modular fixtures accomplish a considerable lot of the benefits of a changeless device utilizing just a temporary setup.Modular work holding join thoughts and components of both lasting and temporary work holding to make reasonable yet-solid work holders.The essential point of interest of modular fixtures is that an apparatus with the advantages of lasting tooling (setup reduction, toughness, profitability upgrades, and precision) can be worked from an arrangement of standard segments.

Multi line 

This line is used to draw parallel two or more offset ed lines in autocad. Highway road center white line and yellow colored outer lines is the example of multi line. 

Formatting of Multi line

1: Click on the Format tab in menu bar

2: Click on the Multi line Style from the drop down list.

3: Click on the modify tab.

4: After clicking the modify tab another menu box will be appear.

There are three portions and there setting are as follows.

(a) Caps

In this portion there are six check buttons, which are used to format multi line start and end round fillets. If you check these buttons round fillets (round circles) will be apply.

Angle can be adjusted by entering the values (Such as 15,30,45,60 degrees etc). First value entry will be appear at the starting point and second value will be appear on the end point.

(b)Fill

This portion is for apply inside color in the multi line. Chose any color and select to apply. Gray color of road is the example.

(c) Elements

In this portion you can format line types, there colors and there offset distance (Parallel line distance). If you want to add more than two lines then click on the add button. 

How To Draw Multi line

Click on the draw tab in menu bar. Scroll down the mouse and pick the multi line and pick the start point and navigate your direction through mouse. Every time your formatting multi line will be set according to your format which was set in the formatting multi line style. To draw different multi line, click on the new tab and save the multi line format style.

  

Line

The basic and most important element of drawing used in auto cad. Short key of line command is "L".

Every time you enter the short key of any command, follow the instructions in the command bar. When you press " L" in the command bar, message appear in the command bar " specify first point".

Click on any point at the drawing area. Navigate your direction through mouse and enter your required length or click any point. As we know basic definition of line is " the distance between two point is called line.In Auto cad 2004 or previous versions supporting lengths and angle does not appear when you navigate the line's direction.(It does not mean that they does not appear, such information if you want to check, appears on the status bar). In Auto cad 2007 and onward versions provide supporting lengths and angles.

Ray

Construction Line

Method to draw construction line is same with ray line, but construction line have both sides extension. These extend lines can be trim after completing the object. These lines are also can be drawn either in vertical or horizontal axis.(or you can draw in diagonal axis.)

Cast Iron

Pig iron alongside scrap iron, coke and limestone is liquefied in a vertical furnace called cupola. Here likewise the carbon and different impurities introduce oxidize in nearness of a little measure of air, to shape slag. The liquid iron got from dome heater can be thrown into forms. It is, thus, known as cast iron. It comprises of 93-94% Ferrous, 2-4% carbon and a small amount of S, P, Si and Mn polluting influences. It is  hard and brittle. It is cast into covers of main holes, channel pipes, casings of machines etc.

Wrought Iron

The most purist form of iron is called wrought iron, which contains up to 99 % of iron and small amount of carbon with impurities such as sulfur , manganese, silicon and phosphorus.wrought iron is malleable, tough, gray and can be welded. It is mold able and has a sinewy structure because of the nearness of thin movies of slag between layers of pure iron. The nearness of slag makes it greatly extreme and safe towards rusting

Manufacturing Process

It is acquired from cast iron by evacuating the significant partition of its impurities influences by the surely understood puddling process.The cast iron alongside some scrap iron is warmed on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace lined with hematite. The hot gasses and flames reflected from the top of the heater falls upon the charge set on the hearth. The cast iron softens down and the liquid mass is blended or puddled at intervals by method for a long pole presented through a channel in the wall of the furnace.  The haematite supplies the oxygen required to oxidize the carbon, sulfur, silicon, manganese and phosphorus show in the cast iron. 

Chemical Reaction

Carbon and sulfur are oxidized to carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, individually. Silicon and manganese are oxidized to silica and manganese oxide, which join to frame manga-nous silicate.

3Si + 2Fe₂0₃ —* 3Si0₂ + 4Fe 3Mn + Fe₂0₃ —» 3MnO + 2Fe MnO + Si0₂ —» MnSi0₃

_{Slag Formation}

As the contamination are dispensed with, the liquefying purpose of the metal ascents and iron gets to be pasty. The pasty mass is blended which frames "balls" or "blooms" which are elastic in composition because of a lot of slag. The balls are taken out from the heater and the slag is crushed out by crushing or hammering. At last, iron is moved into sheets or manufactured into bars.

Chemical Reaction

P₂0₅ + Fe₂0₃ —* 2FeP0₄

Fig a :

Given an acute angle, it is required to obtain a circle of any given radius tangential to both its arms.

Method: Suppose the circle is to be drawn on the given dimension. Obtain lines known as loci parallel to diagonal and base lines.(given distance on figure is 3/4"). These lines intersect each other and provide a point where u can draw a circle tangent to both arms.

Fig b:

Given a circle, it is required to obtain circles tangential to its circumference.

Method : Draw three circles at given dimensions. Draw parallel locus (loci drawn in previous method) lines. Draw parallel circles at there tangents points.

Fig c :

Tangency  to  parallel circles tangents.

Method : Draw three parallel lines as drawn on the fig c. (Both horizontal and vertical lines.) Here you will get the circles center points. These circle will intersect each other at there tangency.

Fig d :

Given two circle which are not tangential , it is required to obtain two other of given rad. tangential to them externally.

Method : Draw horizontal and vertical center lines. Draw two circles with given length radius. Draw two circles arc respectively. then you will get small circle center points.

Fig e :

Obtain a circle which shall be tangential to the larger circle internally and to the smaller circle externally.

Fig f: 

Obtain circles tangential to the mid point of the straight vertical line.

Method : Draw a line perpendicular to the horizontal line. This horizontal line consist of the centers of the given radius circles.

Fig g :

Draw an ogee curve between two parallel straight lines.

Fig h-i-j

Draw fillets or rounds when the angles are acute(fig j) , right (fig h) and obtuse (fig i)

Method: The center of any circle tangential to the arms of an angle lies on the bisector of the angle. Therefore we may bisect the angle.

Common tangency practice in engineering drawing/machine parts is shown in fig.

The arc welding is a type of fusion welding process in which the welding warmth is acquired from an electric curve struck between the work(or base metal) and a electrode. The temperature of the warmth created by the electric arc is near to 6000°C to 7000°C. Both the direct current (D.C) and alternate current(A.C) might be utilized for this welding, however the alternate current is favored for generally purposes.At the point when the work is associated with the positive terminal of the D.C welding machine and the negative terminal to a electrode holder, the welding set up is said to have straight polarity.  Then again, when work is associated with negative and the electrode to a positive terminal, then the welding set up is said to have reversed polarity . The straight polarity is ideal for a few welds while for different welds turned around reversed polarity  ought to be utilized.

Following are the two types of arc welding depending upon the type of electrode:

1: Shield Arc Welding

When the electrode rods with covering material of fluxing are used, this type will be called shield arc welding.

2: Non Shield Arc Welding

When a filler rod or electrode is used for welding, this method is called non shield arc welding.

Arc Welding Processes

Various types of arc welding processes are commonly used in the workshop,there are as follows.

(i) Metal Arc Welding

(ii) Carbon Arc Welding.

(iii) Metallic inert gas (MIG) arc welding

(iv) Tungsten inert gas (TIG) arc welding

1: Clamping Devices

If the job or work piece can not be held through locating devices so it is necessary to hold by some other elements, such types of devices are called clamping devices. Bench vice is the most simplest clamping device used in the work shop. The motivation behind the clamping is to apply a weight to press a work piece against the finding surfaces and hold it there in a position to the cutting forces. In bench vice the mobile jaw apply power on the work piece , their by holding it in right position of area in the altered fixed jaw of vice.

Most common clamping devices are used in work shop are as follow.

(i) Clamping Screws

Clamping screws are best where small and light work pieces to be clamped.

(ii) Hook Bolts

Hook bolts are also suitable for light purposes and where tip of clamp is inconvenient.

(iii) Bridge Clamp

It is very simple in construction and reliable clamp. The most useful part of this clamp is spring loaded nut..

 (iv) Heel Clamp

Heel clamps consists of three major parts, first plate, second center stud and third the heel.This trap ought to be reinforce at the point where the opening for the stud is removed, by expanding the thickness around the hole.

(v) Latch Clamp

Latch clamp is also known as swing strap clamp is very special type of clamp. This clamp is very useful where work piece is to quickly operate to loading and unloading.Lid or latch can easily swing around the job and easy to clamp.

(vi) C-Clamp

It is most useful item used in the workshops.Locking nut is unscrewed by C-shaped. When the clamp is removed the work piece can free easily. The jaw of the clamps fastened the work piece.

2: Tool Guide or Jig Bushing

Some of the time the firmness of the cutting tool might be in adequate to perform certain machining operations. Then to locate the tool regarding to work piece, use is made of guiding such as jig bushing and templates are used where precision is required.Jig bushed are utilized as a part of penetrating ,boring and drilling,through which the drill passes a bush is used to guide the tool.The diameter of the bush depends on the diameter of the drill.Distinctive sort of bushes are spot welded or screwed with the jig. Headless sort shrubs are press fit into the opening of the work piece. Bushes are general made of a decent grade of  steel to protect solidifying at a reasonably no temperature and to lesson the risk of fire cracking. At some point the bushed for managing devices might be of solid metal. Solidified steel bushes are constantly best to guide drills, reamers and taps etc. There are three types of jig bushes according to american standard.

(i) Press fit wearing bushes

(ii) Renewable wearing bushes

(iii)Linear wearing bushes

Linear wearing bushes are also know as master bushes which are mounted or fixed permanently to the jig body.These acts as renewable wearing bushes. These are also with or without head shaped.